Colonial Powers in Africa
Seven European powers carved up almost the entire African continent between the 1880s and the early twentieth century. This page sets out which empire ruled which territories and the legacy each left behind in language, borders and law.
The Partition of a Continent
Between the 1884–1885 Berlin Conference and 1914, European powers completed the conquest and division of Africa during the period known as the Scramble for Africa. By 1914 only Ethiopia and Liberia remained independent. Everywhere else fell under one of seven colonial powers: Britain, France, Portugal, Belgium, Italy, Spain and — until its defeat in the First World War — Germany. France held the largest land area, Britain the most populous and economically valuable territories, while the smaller empires controlled significant but more limited possessions.
The Colonial Powers and Their Territories
The table below summarizes the major colonial empires in Africa, the principal territories each controlled, and the modern countries that emerged from them.
| Colonial Power | Main Territories | Modern Countries |
|---|---|---|
| United Kingdom | Egypt, Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, British East Africa, Tanganyika (after 1919), Northern & Southern Rhodesia, Nyasaland, Bechuanaland, Basutoland, Swaziland, Union of South Africa, Nigeria, Gold Coast, Sierra Leone, Gambia, British Somaliland | Egypt, Sudan, Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Malawi, Botswana, Lesotho, Eswatini, South Africa, Nigeria, Ghana, Sierra Leone, Gambia, Somalia (north) |
| France | Algeria, Tunisia, Morocco (protectorate), French West Africa, French Equatorial Africa, Madagascar, French Somaliland, Comoros | Algeria, Tunisia, Morocco, Senegal, Mauritania, Mali, Burkina Faso, Niger, Côte d'Ivoire, Benin, Guinea, Chad, Central African Republic, Congo-Brazzaville, Gabon, Madagascar, Djibouti, Comoros |
| Portugal | Angola, Mozambique, Portuguese Guinea, Cape Verde, São Tomé and Príncipe | Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, Cape Verde, São Tomé and Príncipe |
| Belgium | Belgian Congo, Ruanda-Urundi (mandate after 1919) | Democratic Republic of the Congo, Rwanda, Burundi |
| Italy | Libya, Eritrea, Italian Somaliland; occupied Ethiopia 1936–1941 | Libya, Eritrea, Somalia (south) |
| Spain | Spanish Sahara, Spanish Morocco (zone), Spanish Guinea | Western Sahara (disputed), part of Morocco, Equatorial Guinea |
| Germany (until 1919) | Togoland, Kamerun, German East Africa, German South West Africa | Togo, Cameroon, Tanzania, Rwanda, Burundi, Namibia (territories reassigned after WWI) |
The British Empire in Africa
Britain pursued a vision, famously associated with Cecil Rhodes, of a continuous band of British territory running from "Cape to Cairo." It came close: British possessions stretched from Egypt and Sudan in the north-east, down through Kenya, Uganda and the Rhodesias, to the Union of South Africa. In West Africa, Britain held Nigeria, the Gold Coast (Ghana), Sierra Leone and the Gambia. British colonial administration often relied on "indirect rule," governing through existing local chiefs and rulers rather than replacing them entirely.
The British legacy is visible today in the widespread use of English as an official language, in common-law legal systems, in parliamentary structures, and in institutions such as the Commonwealth, which most former British territories joined after independence. Britain's settler colonies — Kenya, the Rhodesias and South Africa — had the most difficult and violent paths to majority rule.
The French Empire in Africa
France controlled the greatest land area of any colonial power in Africa, organized mainly into two enormous federations: French West Africa (covering present-day Senegal, Mauritania, Mali, Burkina Faso, Niger, Côte d'Ivoire, Benin and Guinea) and French Equatorial Africa (Chad, the Central African Republic, Congo-Brazzaville and Gabon). In North Africa it ruled Algeria directly as part of France itself, while Tunisia and Morocco were protectorates. Madagascar and Djibouti completed the empire.
French colonial policy emphasized assimilation and the spread of French language and culture. Its legacy is profound: French remains an official language across much of West and Central Africa, the legal systems are based on French civil law, and many former colonies share the CFA franc currency and close ties to France through the bodies of la Francophonie. France's largest settler colony, Algeria, won independence only after a long and bloody war.
The Portuguese Empire in Africa
Portugal was the earliest European power to reach sub-Saharan Africa and the last to leave. Its main colonies were Angola and Mozambique, together with the smaller territories of Portuguese Guinea (Guinea-Bissau), Cape Verde and São Tomé and Príncipe. Portugal regarded these as overseas provinces and resisted decolonization longer than any other power, leading to lengthy liberation wars. Only the 1974 Carnation Revolution in Lisbon ended Portuguese rule, with independence following in 1974 and 1975. The Portuguese language remains the official language of all five countries, which today form the Lusophone African community.
The Belgian Empire in Africa
Belgium's central African holdings began as the personal property of King Leopold II, the Congo Free State, whose rule became notorious for brutal exploitation and atrocities tied to the rubber trade. International outcry led the Belgian state to take over administration in 1908, renaming it the Belgian Congo. After the First World War Belgium also received Ruanda-Urundi as a mandate. The legacy includes the use of French in administration and the vast, resource-rich but politically troubled Democratic Republic of the Congo, as well as Rwanda and Burundi, where colonial-era policies sharpened ethnic divisions.
The Italian, Spanish and German Footprints
Italy, a latecomer, secured Libya, Eritrea and Italian Somaliland, and occupied Ethiopia from 1936 to 1941, though it never fully subdued or legally retained it. Spain held more modest possessions: Spanish Sahara (today's disputed Western Sahara), a protectorate zone in northern Morocco, and Spanish Guinea (Equatorial Guinea), the only African country where Spanish is an official language.
Germany built a substantial empire before the First World War, comprising Togoland, Kamerun, German East Africa and German South West Africa. Germany lost all of these following its defeat in 1919; under the Treaty of Versailles they were redistributed as League of Nations mandates, mainly to Britain, France, Belgium and South Africa. German South West Africa passed to South African administration and eventually became Namibia, while German East Africa was largely transferred to Britain as Tanganyika.
The Lasting Legacy
The colonial era left a deep imprint that endures today. Most fundamentally, the borders of modern African states still follow the lines drawn by Europeans during the Scramble, often cutting across ethnic groups or forcing rival peoples together. Language is the most visible legacy: English, French, Portuguese, Spanish and Arabic serve as official or working languages across the continent, frequently as a neutral lingua franca among many local tongues. Legal and administrative systems mirror those of the former rulers — common law in former British territories, civil law in former French, Belgian, Portuguese and Spanish ones. Economic patterns established to serve colonial trade, transport networks built to move raw materials to ports, and educational and religious institutions all trace back to this period. Understanding which power ruled where is essential to understanding the political geography of Africa today.
Frequently Asked Questions
Which European powers colonized Africa?
The main colonial powers in Africa were Britain, France, Portugal, Belgium, Italy, Spain and Germany. France and Britain controlled by far the largest territories.
Which colonial power controlled the most of Africa?
France controlled the largest land area, mostly across West and Equatorial Africa and the Maghreb, while Britain held a chain of territories from Egypt to South Africa and many of the most valuable economies.
What happened to Germany's African colonies?
After Germany's defeat in the First World War, its colonies were taken away and redistributed as League of Nations mandates, chiefly to Britain, France, Belgium and South Africa.
Why do so many African countries speak French or English?
Because France and Britain were the two largest colonial powers, their languages remain official in many former colonies and are widely used in government, education and business.
Did colonial powers draw Africa's modern borders?
Yes. Most modern African borders follow lines drawn by European powers during the Scramble for Africa, formalized around the 1884–1885 Berlin Conference, often without regard to existing ethnic or political divisions.
Last updated: June 2026.